Executive function performance in middle-aged adults / Desempenho da função executiva em adultos de meia-idade

ABSTRACT. Executive functions have been widely studied in the extreme of ages, but studies in middle-aged adults remain largely neglected. Education and gender are known to influence cognitive performance; however, their effect on executive function in middle-aged adults remains unclear. Objective: The study aimed to observe the effect of hierarchy of educational qualifications (graduate, postgraduate, and PhD) and gender on various executive function tests across middle-aged adults with or without comorbidity. Methods: A total of 66 middle-aged individuals volunteered for the study (mean age=48.45±5.45 years; 20 graduates, 28 postgraduates, and 18 PhD; 36 males and 30 females; 38 healthy adults and 28 adults with comorbidities). Each subject performed a test assessing short-term memory, spatial working memory, and multitasking abilities on the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery with rest periods in no specific order of tests. Key parameters of cognitive tests were analyzed for differences in educational qualifications (ANOVA), gender (t-test), and the effect of comorbidity as a covariate (ANCOVA). Results: PhDs performed significantly better (p<0.05) in multitasking than graduates and had superior visuospatial working memory (fewer errors). Differences in simultaneous matching abilities, lower incongruence cost and multitasking cost were statistically significant in healthy females than in males. Conclusion: On considering adults with comorbidity, those with higher educational attainment retained the ability to multitask compared to their healthy counterparts, which was not seen in the group with lower educational attainment. Thus, higher educational attainment attenuated the influence of comorbidities and deterioration of executive functions in general in middle-aged adults.

RESUMO. As funções executivas têm sido amplamente estudadas no extremo das idades, mas os estudos na meia-idade permanecem amplamente negligenciados. Educação e gênero são conhecidos por influenciar o desempenho cognitivo, no entanto, seu efeito na função executiva em adultos de meia-idade ainda não está claro. Objetivo: O estudo teve como objetivo observar o efeito da hierarquia de qualificações educacionais (graduação, pós-graduação e doutorado) e gênero em vários testes de função executiva em adultos de meia-idade com ou sem comorbidade. Métodos: Sessenta e seis indivíduos de meia idade se voluntariaram para participar do estudo (idade média=48,45±5,45 anos, 20 graduados, 28 pós-graduados e 18 doutores; 36 homens e 30 mulheres; 38 saudáveis e 28 adultos com comorbidades). Cada sujeito realizou um teste avaliando memória de curto prazo, memória de trabalho espacial e habilidades multitarefa na Bateria Automatizada de Testes Neuropsicológicos de Cambridge (Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery — CANTAB) com períodos de descanso em nenhuma ordem específica de testes. Os principais parâmetros dos testes cognitivos foram analisados quanto às diferenças nas qualificações educacionais (ANOVA), sexo (teste t) e efeito da comorbidade como uma covariável (ANCOVA). Resultados: Os doutores tiveram desempenho significativamente melhor (p<0,05) em multitarefa do que os graduados e tiveram memória de trabalho visual-espacial superior (menos erros). As diferenças nas habilidades de correspondência simultânea, menor custo de incongruência e custo de multitarefa foram estatisticamente significativas em mulheres saudáveis do que em homens. Conclusão: Ao considerar os adultos com comorbidade, aqueles com maior escolaridade mantiveram a capacidade de multitarefa como seus pares saudáveis, o que não foi observado no grupo com menor escolaridade. Assim, maior escolaridade atenuou a influência de comorbidades e deterioração das funções executivas em geral, em adultos de meia-idade.

Anthropometric Profile in Relation to Playing Position of Elite Indian Soccer Players.

Background: Previous literature has demonstrated that each specialized playing position may have unique physical and physiological requirements. Body fat is highly related to playing position of football players. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to examine differences among positions in body size and percent body fat of elite football players prior to the start of regular season. Subjects: The subjects of this study were 34 (10 forwards, 10 midfielders, 10 defenders, 4 goalkeepers) normal, healthy elite football players without any orthopedic, respiratory or cardiovascular problems. Methods: Anthropometric profiles of the subjects were determined by measuring height, weight, body mass index (BMI) and percent body fat. The prediction formula used to calculate percent body fat using BMI was: body fat % = (1.20 × BMI) + (0.23 × age) - (10.8 × gender) - 5.4 (R2 0.79, standard error estimate = 4.1% BF%), taking age and gender (male = 1, female = 0) into account. Results: The results demonstrated significant differences (p < 0.005) in the percent body fat among the players of different playing positions. Goalkeepers possessed highest values for body fat percentage followed by defenders and forwards while midfielders had the least body fat percentage. Conclusion: The study suggests that anthropometric characteristics differ in players of different playing positions. The differences found despite similar training protocol might be due to the physiological adaptations in the players.

Effects of eight-week supplementation of Ashwagandha on cardiorespiratory endurance in elite Indian cyclists.

Background: Cycling is an endurance sport relying mainly on aerobic capacity to provide fuel during long-duration cycling events. Athletes are constantly searching for new methods to improve this capacity through various nutritional and ergogenic aids. Purpose: The aim of the study was to find out the effect of Ashwagandha on the cardiorespiratory endurance capacity, that is, aerobic capacity of elite Indian cyclists. Materials and Methods: Forty elite (elite here refers to the participation of the athlete in at least state-level events) Indian cyclists were chosen randomly and were equally divided into experimental and placebo groups. The experimental group received 500 mg capsules of aqueous roots of Ashwagandha twice daily for eight weeks, whereas the placebo group received starch capsules. Outcome Measures: The baseline treadmill test for the cyclists were performed to measure their aerobic capacity in terms of maximal aerobic capacity (VO2 max), metabolic equivalent, respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and total time for the athlete to reach his exhaustion stage. After eight weeks of supplementation, the treadmill test was again performed and results were obtained. Results: There was significant improvement in the experimental group in all parameters, whereas the placebo group did not show any change with respect to their baseline parameters. There was significant improvement in the experimental group in all parameters, namely, VO2 max (t = 5.356; P < 0.001), METS (t = 4.483; P < 0.001), and time for exhaustion on treadmill (t = 4.813; P < 0.001) in comparison to the placebo group which did not show any change with respect to their baseline parameters. Conclusion: Ashwagandha improved the cardiorespiratory endurance of the elite athletes.

Effects of resistance training on metabolic profi le of adults with type 2 diabetes.

Background & objectives: The number of diabetes in India is increasing at an alarming rate. The effects of physical activity in the form of resistance training or aerobic exercises on type 2 diabetes have not been studied in Indian population. The objective of this study was to analyse the effects of eight weeks of progressive resistance training (PRT) compared with aerobic exercise (AE) on glycaemic control, metabolic profi le, cardiovascular fi tness parameters and general well being in adults with type 2 diabetes. Methods: Thirty adults (14 females and 16 males mean; age 53.8 ± 8.8 yr) with type 2 diabetes were randomly assigned to 8 wk supervised PRT (n=10) or AE (n=10) or control group (n=10). Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c), lipid profi le, blood pressure, heart rate, body mass index (BMI) and general well being were measured before training (i.e. 0 wk) and after 8 wk of training period. Results: Plasma glycosylated haemoglobin levels decreased signifi cantly : signififi (P<0.05) both in the PRT group (7.57 ± 2.4% to 6.23 ± 0.8%) and in AE group (8.11±0.9% to 6.66 ± 0.9%).Total cholesterol levels decreased signifififi cantly (P<0.05) by 13.3 per cent in PRT group and by 6.1 per cent in AE group. Both exercise groups showed signifififi cantly reduction in systolic blood pressure (P<0.05). General well being improvement was much more in PRT (8.6%) as compared to AE group (2.7%). Interpretation & conclusions: Our fi ndings showed that both PRT and AE were effective in improving metabolic profi le of adults with type 2 diabetes but the percentage improvement in triglycerides, total cholesterol levels and general well being with PRT was more compared to AE. Further studies on a larger sample need to be done to confirm these findings.